period (春秋戰國時代/春秋战国时代) - in its latter part was fraught with
chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of
Chinese philosophy because a
broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed
freely. This phenomenon has been called the
Contention of
a Hundred Schools of Thought (百家爭鳴/百家争鸣;
bǎijiā zhēngmíng;
pai-chia cheng-ming;
'hundred schools contend'). The thoughts and ideas discussed and
refined during this period have profoundly influenced
lifestyles and
social consciousness up to
the present day in East Asian countries. The
intellectual society of this era was
characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by
various state rulers as advisers on the methods of
government,
war, and
diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the
Qin Dynasty and the subsequent
purge
of dissent.
Confucianism and its derivatives
Main article:
Confucianism
Confucianism (儒家;
Rújiā;
Ju-chia;
'School of scholars') is the body of thought that arguably had the
most enduring effects on Chinese life. Its written legacy lies in
the
Confucian Classics, which later became the
foundation of traditional society.
Confucius (551–479 BC), or Kongzi 'Master
Kong', looked back to the early days of the
Zhou dynasty for
an ideal socio-political order. He believed that the only effective
system of government necessitated prescribed relationships for each
individual: 'Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject a subject'.
Furthermore, he contended that a king must be virtuous in order to
rule properly. To Confucius, the functions of government and social
stratification were facts of life to be sustained by ethical
values; thus his ideal human was the
junzi, which
is translated as 'gentleman' or 'superior person'.
Mencius (371–289 BC), or Mengzi, formulated
his teachings directly in response to Confucius.
The effect of the combined work of Confucius, the codifier and
interpreter of a system of relationships based on ethical behavior,
and Mencius, the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucianist
thought, was to provide traditional Chinese society with a
comprehensive framework by which to order virtually every aspect of
life.
There were many accretions to the body of Confucian thought, both
immediately and over the millennia, from within and without the
Confucian school. Interpretations adapted to contemporary society
allowed for flexibility within Confucianism, while the fundamental
system of modeled behavior from ancient texts formed its
philosophical core.
Diametrically opposed to Mencius, in regards to human nature (性),
was the interpretation of
Xunzi
(c. 300–237 BC), another Confucian follower. Xunzi preached
that man is not innately good; he asserted that goodness is
attainable only through training one's desires and conduct.
Legalism
Main article:
Legalism (Chinese
philosophy)
The School of Law or Legalism (法家;
Fǎjiā;
Fa-chia; 'School of law') doctrine was formulated by
Han Feizi (d. 233 BC) and
Li Si
(d. 208 BC), who maintained that human nature was
incorrigibly selfish; accordingly, the only way to preserve the
social order was to impose discipline from above, and to see to a
strict enforcement of laws. The Legalists exalted the state above
all, seeking its prosperity and martial prowess over the welfare of
the common people.
Legalism greatly influenced the philosophical basis for the
imperial form of government. During the
Han
Dynasty, the most practical elements of Confucianism and
Legalism were taken to form a sort of synthesis, marking the
creation of a new form of government that would remain largely
intact until the late 19th century.
Taoism
Main article:
Taoism
Philosophical Taoism or Daoism (道家;
Dàojiā;
Tao-chia; 'School of the Way') developed into the
second most significant stream of Chinese thought. Its formulation
is often attributed to the legendary sage
Laozi
('Old Master'), who is said to predate Confucius, and
Zhuangzi (369–286 BC). The focus of Taoism is
on the individual within the natural realm rather than the
individual within society; accordingly, the goal of life for each
individual is seeking to adjust oneself and adapting to the rhythm
of the natural (and the supernatural) world, to follow the Way
(
tao) of
the universe, and to live in harmony. In many ways the opposite of
rigid Confucian morality, Taoism was for many of its adherents a
complement to their ordered daily lives. A scholar serving as an
official would usually follow Confucian teachings, but at leisure
or in retirement might seek harmony with nature as a Taoist
recluse.
Mohism
Main article:
Mohism
Mohism or Moism (墨家;
Mòjiā;
Mo-chia;
'School of Mo') was developed by followers of
Mozi
(also referred to as Mo Di; 470–c.391 BC). Though the school
did not survive through the
Qin
Dynasty, Mohism was seen as a major rival of Confucianism in
the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Its philosophy rested
on the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that 'everyone is
equal before heaven', and that people should seek to imitate heaven
by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology
can be regarded as primitive materialist
empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought
to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such
as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic,
elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction.
Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on
ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant. He regarded
offensive warfare as wasteful and advocated pacifism or at the
most, defensive fortification. The achievement of social goals,
according to Mozi, necessitated the unity of thought and action.
His political philosophy bears a resemblance to divine-rule
monarchy: the population ought always to obey its leaders, as its
leaders ought always to follow the will of heaven. Mohism might be
argued to have elements of
meritocracy: Mozi contended that rulers should
appoint officials by virtue of their ability instead of their
family connections. Although popular faith in Mohism had declined
by the end of the Qin Dynasty, its views are said to be strongly
echoed in Legalist thought.
School of Yin-yang
Main article:
School of Yin Yang
The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang (陰陽家/阴阳家;
Yīnyángjiā;
Yin-yang-chia; 'School of
Yin-Yang') was a Warring States era philosophy that synthesized the
concepts of
yin-yang and the
Five Elements;
Zou Yan is considered the founder of this
school.
[1]
His theory attem
