Educational technology 教育技术
2012-09-08 21:38阅读：
Educational
technology 教育技术
Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of
facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using
and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.'
The term educational technology is often associated with, and
encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While
instructional technology is 'the theory and practice of design,
development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes
and resources for learning,' according to the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and
Terminology Committee, educational technology includes other
systems used in the process of developing human capability.
Educational technology includes, but is not limited
to,
software, hardware, as well as Internet applications, such as
wiki's and blogs, and activities. But there is still debate on what
these terms mean.
Technology of education is most simply and comfortably defined
as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student
learning and may be measured in how and why individuals behave.
Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word
'technology.' Technology can refer to material objects of use to
humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass
broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and
techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to
overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools
such as 'smartphones' and games (both online and offline) are
beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential.
Media psychology is the field of study that applies theories in
human behavior to educational technology.
Consider the Handbook of Human Performance Technology. The word
technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human
Performance Technology means 'applied science.' In other words, any
valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic
research using the 'scientific method' is considered a
'technology.' Educational or Human Performance Technology may be
based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but neither
necessarily implies physical technology. The word technology comes
from the Greek 'techne' which means craft or art. Another word,
'technique,' with the same origin, also may be used when
considering the field Educational Technology. So Educational
Technology may be extended to include the techniques of the
educator.
A
classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956
book, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Bloom's Taxonomy is
helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is
expected of—and what are the learning goals for—learners. However,
Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technology
per se and is more concerned with pedagogical
strategies.
According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who
transforms basic educational and psychological research into an
evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or
instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate
degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related
to educational psychology, educational media, experimental
psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of
Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or
Instructional Systems Design. But few of those listed below as
theorists would ever use the term 'educational technologist' as a
term to describe themselves, preferring terms such as 'educator.'
The transformation of educational technology from a cottage
industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and
Whitaker.
History
Educational technology in a way could be traced back to the
emergence of very early tools, e.g., paintings on cave walls. But
usually its history starts with educational film (1900s) or Sidney
Pressey's mechanical teaching machines in the
1920s.
The first large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to
US WWII training of soldiers through training films and other
mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology, based on
the idea that people can learn through aural and visual reception,
exists in many forms, e.g., streaming audio and video, or
PowerPoint presentations with voice-over. Another interesting
invention of the 1940s was hypertext, i.e., V. Bush's
memex.
The 1950s led to two major, still popular designs. Skinners work
led to 'programmed instruction' focusing on the formulation of
behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small
units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a
mastery approach to learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual
behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both
instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models
based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based
training' (CBT), Computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted
instruction (CAI) in the 1970s through the 1990s. In a more
simplified form they correspond to today's 'e-contents' that often
form the core of 'e-learning' set-ups, sometimes also referred to
as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer
divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented
with graphics and multimedia presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice
questions with immediate feedback are added for self-assessment and
guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards defined by IMS,
ADL/SCORM and IEEE.
The 1980s and 1990s produced a variety of schools that can be
put under the umbrella of the label Computer-based learning (CBL).
Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist learning
theories, these environments focused on teaching both abstract and
domain-specific problem solving. Preferred technologies were
micro-worlds (computer environments where learners could explore
and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can
play with parameters of dynamic systems) and
hypertext.
Digitized communication and networking in education started in
the mid 80s and became popular by the mid-90's, in particular
through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a
difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier
type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or
Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between
the student and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or
micro-worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered
today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular
school system is Computer-mediated communication (CMC), where the
primary form of interaction is between students and instructors,
mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized
(self-study) learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor
facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning
activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools
for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge
management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum
management.
In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also
play a major role in full-time distance teaching. While most
quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional CBT/CBL
materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums,
instant messaging, video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to
smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid designs that mix
presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a
module) with distance activities and use various pedagogical styles
(e.g., drill & practise, exercises, projects,
etc.).
The 2000s emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous
technologies gave a new impulse to situated learning theories
favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the
concept of integrated learning to describe blended learning
scenarios that integrate both school and authentic (e.g.,
workplace) settings.
Theories and practices
Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have
been present in the educational technology literature. These are
Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Each of these schools
of thought are still present in today's literature but have evolved
as the Psychology literature has evolved.
Behaviorism
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th
century with the animal learning experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward
Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many
others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and
experiment with human learning. While still very useful this
philosophy of learning has lost favor with many
educators.
Skinner's contributions
B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based
on his functional analysis of Verbal Behavior and wrote 'The
Technology of Teaching', an attempt to dispel the myths underlying
contemporary education as well as promote his system he called
programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the
Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but
quite different from Keller's and Skinner's
models.
Cognitivism
Cognitive science has changed how educators view learning. Since
the very early beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s
and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change.
Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even
though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond
behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how
human memory works to promote learning.
After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model
and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a
theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive
frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 1980s, and
1990s. It is important to note that Computer Science and
Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive
Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly
known as short term memory) and long term memory have been
facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer
Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science
is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like
Cognitive load andInformation Processing Theory. In addition,
psychology as applied to media is easily measured in studying
behavior. The area of media psychology is both cognative and
affective and is central to understanding educational
technology.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy
that many educators began to consider in the 1990s. One of the
primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their
own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or
others with different perspectives.
Constructivist learning environments require students to utilize
their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related,
and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role
of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so
that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist
educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are
appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen
(1997) suggests 'well-structured' learning environments are useful
for novice learners and that 'ill-structured' environments are only
useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing technology
when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose
technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a
problem-solving environment.
Instructional technique and technologies
Problem Based Learning, Project-based Learning, and
Inquiry-based learning are active learning educational technologies
used to facilitate learning. Technology which includes physical and
process applied science can be incorporated into project, problem,
inquiry-based learning as they all have a similar educational
philosophy. All three are student centered, ideally involving
real-world scenarios in which students are actively engaged in
critical thinking activities. The process that students are
encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical research)
is considered to be a technology. Classic examples of technologies
used by teachers and Educational Technologists include Bloom's
Taxonomy and Instructional Design.
Theorists
This is an area where new thinkers are coming to the forefront
everyday. Many of the ideas spread from theorists, researchers, and
experts through their blogs. Extensive lists of educational
bloggers by area of interest are available at Steve Hargadon's
'SupportBloggers' site or at the 'movingforward' wiki started by
Scott McLeod. Many of these blogs are recognized by their peers
each year through the edublogger awards. Web 2.0 technologies have
led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on
this topic and the number of educators formally and informally
discussing it. Most listed below have been around for more than a
decade, however, and few new thinkers mentioned above are listed
here.
Alan November
Seymour Papert
Will Richardson
John Sweller
Don Krug
Alex Jones
George Siemens
David Wiley
David Wilson
Bernard Luskin
Benefits
Educational technology is intended to improve education over
what it would be without technology. Some of the claimed benefits
are listed below:
Easy-to-access course materials. Instructors can
post the course material or important information on a course
website, which means students can study at a time and location they
prefer and can obtain the study material very
quickly
Student motivation. Computer-based instruction can
give instant feedback to students and explain correct answers.
Moreover, a computer is patient and non-judgmental, which can give
the student motivation to continue learning. According to James
Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for
instruction, students usually learn more in less time when
receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and
develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based
classes. The American educator, Cassandra B. Whyte, researched and
reported about the importance of locus of control and successful
academic performance and by the late 1980s, she wrote of how
important computer usage and information technology would become in
the higher education experience of the future.
Wide participation. Learning material can be used
for long distance learning and are accessible to a wider
audience
Improved student writing. It is convenient for
students to edit their written work on word processors, which can,
in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some
studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written
work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they
know
Subjects made easier to learn. Many different types
of educational software are designed and developed to help children
or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples include
pre-school software, computer simulators, and graphics
software
A structure that is more amenable to measurement
and improvement of outcomes. With proper structuring it can become
easier to monitor and maintain student work while also quickly
gauging modifications to the instruction necessary to enhance
student learning.
Differentiated Instruction. Educational technology
provides the means to focus on active student participation and to
present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens
individualized instruction and promotes the development of
personalized learning plans. Students are encouraged to use
multimedia components and to incorporate the knowledge they gained
in creative ways.
Criticism
Although technology in the classroom does have many benefits,
there are clear drawbacks as well. Lack of proper training, limited
access to sufficient quantities of a technology, and the extra time
required for many implementations of technology are just a few of
the reasons that technology is often not used extensively in the
classroom. To understand educational technology one must also
understand theories in human behavior as behavior is affected by
technology. Media Psychology is the study of media, technology and
how and why individuals, groups and societies behave the way they
do. The first Ph.D program with a concentration in media psychology
was started in 2002 at Fielding Graduate University by Bernard
Luskin. The Media Psychology division of APA, division 46 has a
focus on media psychology. Media and the family is another emerging
area affected by rapidly changing educational
technology.
Similar to learning a new task or trade, special training is
vital to ensuring the effective integration of classroom
technology. Since technology is not the end goal of education, but
rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have
a good grasp of the technology being used and its advantages over
more traditional methods. If there is a lack in either of these
areas, technology will be seen as a hindrance and not a benefit to
the goals of teaching.
Another difficulty is introduced when access to a sufficient
quantity of a resource is limited. This is often seen when the
quantity of computers or digital cameras for classroom use is not
enough to meet the needs of an entire classroom. It also occurs in
less noticed forms such as limited access for technology
exploration because of the high cost of technology and the fear of
damages. In other cases, the inconvenience of resource placement is
a hindrance, such as having to transport a classroom to a computer
lab instead of having in-classroom computer access by means of
technology such as laptop carts.
Technology implementation can also be time consuming. There may
be an initial setup or training time cost inherent in the use of
certain technologies. Even with these tasks accomplished,
technology failure may occur during the activity and as a result
teachers must have an alternative lesson ready. Another major issue
arises because of the evolving nature of technology. New resources
have to be designed and distributed whenever the technological
platform has been changed. Finding quality materials to support
classroom objectives after such changes is often difficult even
after they exist in sufficient quantity and teachers must design
these resources on their own.
Experimental evidence suggests that these criticisms may have
limited basis. See, for example, the work done by Sugata Mitra. A
recent presentation summarizes the research and Dr. Mitra's current
research initiative.
Educational technology and the
humanities
Research from the Alberta Initiative for School Improvement
(AISI) indicates that inquiry and project-based approaches,
combined with a focus on curriculum, effectively supports the
infusion of educational technologies into the learning and teaching
process.
Technology in the classroom
There are various types of technologies currently used in
traditional classrooms. Among these are:
Computer in the classroom: Having a computer in the
classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the
classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present
new material, illustrate how to use new programs, and show new
websites.
Class website: An easy way to display your
student's work is to create a web page designed for your class.
Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework
assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much
more. In today's society, children know how to use the computer and
navigate their way through a website, so why not give them one
where they can be a published author. Just be careful as most
districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for
a school or classroom. Also, most school districts provide teacher
webpages that can easily be viewed through the school district's
website.
Class blogs and wikis: There are a variety of Web
2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in the classroom.
Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue, such as a
journal, thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for
student comment and reflection. Wikis are more group focused to
allow multiple members of the group to edit a single document and
create a truly collaborative and carefully edited finished
product.
Wireless classroom microphones: Noisy classrooms
are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones, students
are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children learn better
when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is
that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the
day.
Mobile devices: Mobile devices such as clickers or
smartphone can be used to enhance the experience in the classroom
by providing the possibility for professors to get
feedback.
Interactive Whiteboards: An interactive whiteboard
that provides touch control of computer applications. These enhance
the experience in the classroom by showing anything that can be on
a computer screen. This not only aids in visual learning, but it is
interactive so the students can draw, write, or manipulate images
on the interactive whiteboard.
Digital video-on-demand: Replacement of hard copy
videos (DVD, VHS) with digital video accessed from a central server
(e.g. SAFARI Montage). Digital video eliminates the need for
in-classroom hardware (players) and allows teachers and students to
access video clips immediately by not utilizing the public
Internet.
Online media: Streamed video websites can be
utilized to enhance a classroom lesson (e.g. United Streaming,
Teacher Tube, etc.)
Online study tools: Tools that motivate studying by
making studying more fun or individualized for the student (e.g.
Study Cocoa)
Digital Games: The field of educational games and
serious games has been growing significantly over the last few
years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the
classroom and have a lot of positive feedback including higher
motivation for students.
There are many other tools being utilized depending on the local
school board and funds available. These may include: digital
cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document
cameras, or LCD projectors.
Podcasts: Podcasting is a relatively new invention
that allows anybody to publish files to the Internet where
individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by a
subscription. The primary benefit of podcasting for educators is
quite simple. It enables teachers to reach students through a
medium that is both 'cool' and a part of their daily lives. For a
technology that only requires a computer, microphone and internet
connection, podcasting has the capacity of advancing a student’s
education beyond the classroom. When students listen to the
podcasts of other students as well as their own, they can quickly
demonstrate their capacities to identify and define 'quality.' This
can be a great tool for learning and developing literacy inside and
outside the classroom. Podcasting can help sharpen students’
vocabulary, writing, editing, public speaking, and presentation
skills. Students will also learn skills that will be valuable in
the working world, such as communication, time management, and
problem-solving.
Although podcasts are a new phenomenon in classrooms, especially
on college campuses, studies have shown the differences in
effectiveness between a live lecture versus podcast are minor in
terms of the education of the student.
Societies
Learned societies concerned with educational technology
include:
Association for the Advancement of Computing in
Education (AACE)
Association for Educational Communications and
Technology
Association for Learning
Technology
International Society for Performance
Improvement
International Society for Technology in Education -
(ISTE)
European Association of Technology-Enhanced
Learning
