第一章
1.What is
language?
Language is a system
of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication
2.Design features
of language
①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic
signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
(sounds and meanings)
②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of
structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of
elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its
own principles of organization.
③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible
the construction and interpretation of new signals by its
users.
④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to
symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in
time and space) at moment of communication.
(p7)
3.Functions of
language
① Informative(信息功能): to
give information about facts. (ideational)
② Interpersonal(人际功能): to
establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex,
language, background, accent, status)
③ Performative(施为功能) :
language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name,
promise, apologize, sorry, declare)
④.
Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to
express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.
⑤Phatic
communion(寒暄交流) : to
use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable
relationship or maintain social contact between people without any
factual content. (health, weather)
⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use
of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)
⑦Metalingual
function(元语言功能): to
talk about language itself.
4. What is
linguistics?
Linguistics is
generally defined as the scientific study of
language.
5. Important
distinctions in linguistics
Descriptive &
prescriptive
Synchronic &
diachronic
Langue &
parole
Competence &
performance
6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe
and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use
(modern linguistic)
Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down
rules for “correct and
standard” linguistic behavior
in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)
7.Synchronic
study (共时)—description
of a language at some point of time (modern
linguistics)
Diachronic
study (历时)—
description of a language as it
changes through time (historical development of language over a
period of time)
第四章
1．What
is Syntax （句法）?
Syntax is the
study of the rules governing the ways different constituents
are combined to form
sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则
2．Four
Approaches :The traditional
approach传统语言观 (Parts of
speech、Syntactic
Function不考、Category范畴、Concord and
government一致关系和支配关系)、The
structural approach结构语言观、The
generative approach、The
functional approach功能语言观
3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a
sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of
words , such as the classification of words in terms of
parts of speech , the identification of function of words in
terms of subject, predicate , etc.
4. Parts of
speech
Traditional grammar
defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
5．The term Category范畴 in some approaches refers to word classes and
functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能 eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More
specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general
units:
the categories
of the noun名词的范畴, include
number, gender, case and countability（case）;
the categories
of the verb动词的范畴: tense,
aspect, voice, etc.
6．Number is
mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.
Two terms of
number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数
Number is also
reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs
7. Gender
is also mostly a category of the noun and
pronoun.
In English, the gender
distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological
gender of the creature.
8. Case
is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic
relationship between words in a
sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系
In English,
pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and
genitive所有格
In English, the case
of noun is realised in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a
preposition(c) word order
9.
Tense时态: the
absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an
inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses
recognized now: past and present.
Since the future time
does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a
“future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk
about the future.
10.
Aspect体: It has nothing
with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or
completed.
Perfective（完成体） and Imperfective（进行体）
Perfective and
Progressive (in English)
11.
Voice语态: describe
the relationship between verb and subject
Passive被动语态 and active主动语态
12. Concord and
government
①Concord
(一致关系)
refers to agreement between
words, especially between a verb and the subject of a
sentence.
②Government
(支配关系)
is a type of grammatical relationship
between two or more elements in a sentence.
In traditional
grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to
the relationship between verbs and nouns or between
prepositions and nouns.
13.The
Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出
14.Syntactic
Relations：Positional
relations位置关系、Relations of
substitutability替代关系、Relations
of co-occurrence同现关系
15.Immediate
constituent (直接成分)
is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an
analysis.
16.An
endocentric construction
(向心结构) is a
construction that contains:
1) a head,
which is the single obligatory element in the
construction;
2) one or more
optional elements subordinate to the head.
17.theme
(主位) refers to
the known information which is not new to the reader or
listener
Rheme
(述位) refers to the
information that is new. The new information is what is to be
transmitted to the reader or listener
The linguists of the
Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the
functional side as well as the
grammatical side.
subject, predicate
(grammatical side)
theme, rheme
(functional side)
第五章
1. What
is Semantics?
Semantics is the
study of the meaning of words, phrases and
sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科
2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:
①Conceptual
meaning概念意义
②Connotative
meaning内涵意义
③Social
meaning社会意义
④Affective
meaning 感情意义 Associative
Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）
⑤Reflected
meaning反射意义
⑥Collocative
meaning搭配意义
⑦Thematic
meaning主位意义
3.Conceptual meaning
(概念意义)
is also called
“denotative”（外延义）and it is
concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it
refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系
Conceptual meaning is
meaning given in the dictionary.
4.Associative
meaning (联想意义) is the
total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the
word
Associative meaning is
the meaning which a word suggests or implies.
5.Thematic
meaning (主位意义) is “what is
communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms
of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的
6. The
Referential Theory（指称理论）：
① The
Referential Theory
② The Semantic
Triangle
③ Sense and
Reference
7.The
referential theory 指称理论 is
the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the
thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论
8. The
semantic triangle语意三角 is
the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers
to and it is mediated by
concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的
9.Sense
(涵义) is a set of properties
possessed by a name.
10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic
expression has with the concrete object.
11. The
sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while
its reference is the object it
represents
Every word has a
sense, but not every word has a reference.
12. Sense
Relations涵义关系
①Synonymy（同义关系）
②Antonymy（反义关系） （Gradable、Complementary、Converse）
③Hyponymy（上下义关系）
13.But
total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style,
connotations and dialect.
14.Gradable antonymy
(等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse
antonymy (反向反义关系)
15.
Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning
which analyses a word into a set of meaning
components.
16. Sentence
Meaning
17. Sense
relations between sentences
① Synonymity
(同义)
a. He was a bachelor
all his life.
b. He never married
all his boy.
Sentences a and b are
in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily
implies the truth of another sentence
②
Inconsistency (矛盾)
a. Elizabeth II is
Queen of England.
b. Elizabeth II is a
man.
Sentences a and b are
in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence
necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.
③
Entailment (蕴涵)
a. He married a blonde
heiress.
b. He married a
blonde.
Entailment refers to a
kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is
included in y.
④
Presupposition (前提预设)
It is what a speaker
or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already
knows.
⑤Contradiction (矛盾)
⑥Semantic
anomaly (语义反常)
18. An integrated
theory
﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning
of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and
the way they are combined.
﹡This semantic
theory is the integration of syntax and
semantics
﹡Their basic
idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a
dictionary and a set of projection
rules
﹡The dictionary
provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of
words
﹡The projection
rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words
together.
19.Logical
semantics（逻辑语义学）
﹡A
proposition(命题) is what is to
be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is
uttered to make a statement.
﹡It is the basic
meaning which a sentence express.
﹡A very
important property of the proposition is that it has a truth
value.
第七章
1.Language
and Culture：①Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis②Evidence Given by Whorf ③Implication of SWH ④Relation between Language and
Culture
2．SHW can
be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism
(语言决定论):
the language we use determines the way
we view about the world around us.
Language may
determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P162
3. Relation between
Language and Culture
Language
influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus
reflecting the different world views of different language users,
that is, culture and thought are conditioned by
language
Culture
influences language，Every
language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and
reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes,
the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding
alterations
4.Language and
Society
Relation between
Language and Society
Varieties of
language（Dialects、Registers）
Bilingualism and
Diglossia
Pidgin and
Creole
5.Varieties related to the user are normally known
as dialects and varieties related to use as
registers.
6.Dialectal
Varieties ：Regional
dialect、Social
dialect（Sociolect、
Language and gender、
Language and age、 Idiolect、 Ethnic dialect）
7.Social
dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a
particular social group, such as a particular social class, or
ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and
occupation.
8.An
ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts
across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less
privileged population that has experienced some form of social
isolation such as racial discrimination or
segregation.
9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an
individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her
idea.
10.Register refers to the functional variety of
language that is defined according to its use in a context of
situation.
11.Halliday’s
Register Theory
Language varies as its
function varies; it differs in different situations.
Halliday
distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of
discourse (语场)、
tenor of discourse
(语旨)、 mode of discourse (语式)
12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or
nearly equal fluency.
13.Diglossia
(双语体现象): when two
varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for
different purposes, this is called diglossia.
14．A pidgin : it is a special language
variety that mixes and blends languages used for communicative
purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s
language.
15.A creole
: when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech
community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community
as their native language, it is said to have become a
creole.
第八章
1.What is
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the
study of language in context / use /
communication.
2 Semantics and
Pragmatics
Similarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic
study of meaning
Difference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent
side of meaning ；Pragmatic
meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to
context ；Pragmatic = meaning -
semantics
3.Three
Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational
Implicature、Post-Gricean
Developments
4.Speech Act
Theory(言语行为理论)：① Performatives and Constatives② A theory of the illocutionary
act
5.The
utterance which performs an act is called a performative
(行事话语)。
6.A
constative (述事话语) is
an utterance which asserts something that is either true or
false.
7Characteristics of
Implicature：Calculability、Cancellability、Non-detachability、Non-conventionality
8.Calculability(可推导性):
means that implicature of an utterance can be calculated based on
literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context,
etc.
9.Cancellability/Defeasibility(可取消性/可废除原则)
If the factors that conversational
implicature relied on change, the implicature will also
change.
10.Relevance
Theory关联理论
Communicative
Principle of Relevance：Every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of
its own optimal relevance.
Cognitive
Principle of Relevance：Human cognition tends to be geared to the
maximization of relevance.
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