型教学是应多语言,多文化社会中的弱势语言群体的语言学习问题而产生的。在欧洲的一些人口较少的国家,国民既需要维护自己的民族文化又必须融入世界经济,学习世界先进知识,因而需要习惯用双语或多语认知,在强势语言群体中更具有竞争力。从这个角度看,内容型第二语言教学,作为双语教学理念下的一种二语教学形式,在多语多民族地区的语言教学中,具有很大的实践潜力。
学者们对于内容型教学的内涵有着不同的界定。Jean Brewster认为, Content-based instruction
(CBI) is an umbrella term referring to instructional approaches
that make a dual, though not necessarily equal, commitment to
language and content-learning objectives. In CBI, content refers to
the use of nonlanguage subject matter that is closely aligned with
traditional school subjects, themes of interest to students, or
vocational and occupational areas.
有的学者倾向于将内容型教学归入双语教学,也有学者(Met)对内容型教学作出了从强势到弱势的五种模式形式的界定[2],
在这里本人认为,双语教学与内容型教学的概念的广义的理解上有重合的部分,即同时用母语和目的语认知的心理学基础,然而也它们也各有侧重,双语教学的外延广泛,更强调从正统学校基础教育的角度出发,对各门学科知识的掌握,而这里我们所谈的内容型教学则是以语言能力获得为重要标准的。
内容型教学法的理论基础
心理学基础
认知主义及建构主义心理学,整体认知的(+格式塔心理学),强调整体认知。
语言学基础
对内容型教学的语言学理论基础,主要有学者认为如下:
首先是Sticht提出对基本人际交往技能(basic interpersonal communication
skills)和认知学术性语言技能(cognitive academic
languageprofiency)的区分。他认为,认知科学界的成果表明,人类所有的智力活动,如思考、沟通、解决问题以及学习等既需要过程(processes)又需要内容知识(content
knowledge),仅仅依靠诸如读、写、批判性思维等“过程”不能将人们的认知能力提升到较高水平,“内容知识”是保证性这些“过程”良好运作的基础。Cummins
提出的语言能力假设把语言能力分为前者指用于人际交往或非正式场合的语言技能,较容易习得,需时1 至2
年;后者指在语境缺乏场合中仍能够被理解和使用的学术性语言能力,需要5 至7 年并要求在学术情境下进行直接的语言教学。CBI
项目正是为了培养学习者的认知学术性语言技能而创立的。
其次是维果茨基(Vygotsky,
Lev.S)的交互理论。它将语言看作个人推理的一种方法,随着时间的推移,人学习语言发展思维的能力并不逐渐消逝,而是内化为一种能力,并继续承担个人与社会之间的中介作用:在充分的外在社会条件下,学习语言的能力可以被引导出来。维果茨基提出了著名的“最近发展区”理论。
克拉申的可理解输入理论:“,二语习得应专注于意义(meaning),而不是语言形式(form)。意义是语言学习的重心。为了有效刺激“语言习得机制”,我们需要意义,因此“内容和“意义”成为当代外语教学法发展的另一种动力。
本人认为:语言是交际工具,也是思维工具,语言是一种认知的载体,一种认知工具。而内容型教学结合了这两个语言的基本特性,从某种程度上说也是对交际法的一种补充。
教学理论渊源
Savigon(1991)认为CBI是交际法二语教学一种自然伴随的情况(natural
concomitant),即注重使用语言来理解,表达和定位意义(use language to interpret,express
and negotiate meaning)并认为这种教学法适合EAL 教学(English as an additional
language)。
但本人认为不能将内容型教学法归属于交际法的衍生品,两者虽然都强调语言意义的重要性,但分属于语言意义的两个层面,即有语言两大特性而产生的交际意义和认知意义,前者是外化的表现,而后者是内化的积淀。因此我们不能将意义和内容这两个概念混淆起来,语言内容不等同于语言意义,而只是意义的一部分。
主要的特征
内容型二语教学理念主要有一下特征:
l
把语言当作真正的工具(认知工具),而不是目的。
l
内容与语言的关系为:在教学中,内容的选取并不被纳入整个语言(语法)系统的学习框架,反之,语言学习是从属于内容学习的。
l
内容型教学与其他二语教学法的比较。
二语教学法历来有注重形式和意义之分,内容型教学法关注语言的内容,意义这一点与交际教学法的理念有类似之处,然而它+深化和细化了由学习者个体差异而导致的二语学习目的的不同,并直接将学习者对特定领域的知识需求和语言需求结合起来,造成直接用目的语认知或者同时用母语和目的语认知的结果,从而提升学习者掌握目的语满足特定目的的能力。(母语在其中角色?)
l
总的来说内容型教学与交际法等着眼于意义的教学法并不矛盾,只是着眼于更加纵向深入的层面来考虑二语学习的问题。
早期发展
除了以上所罗列的各种学科基础,内容型教学法早期可以追溯到1960s引入的沉浸式教学法(Canadian programs in
which children were taught traditional school subjects in their
second language),后来它又被细分为:full immersion,partial immersion, late
immersion and delayed immersion(Johnson and Swain 1997)
主要成就
自1986年MOHAN出版了《语言和内容》一书(language and
content)以来,基于内容的二语教学得到了诸多学者的关注。Mohan在他的书中 characterized academic
discourse in terms of knowledge structures typical of school
subject matter: description, sequence, choice, classification,
principles, and uation.
1987年Crandall (1987) show cased ways in which teachers could
integrate instruction to help limited English-proficient students
master mathematics, science, and social studies while at the same
time learning academic English.(通过案例实践结合学科的英语教学)
1988 Enright and McCloskey’s
Integrated Language Teaching
Model emphasized the integration of language and subject matter
learning, language skills,as well as home and school language and
learning experiences.
1989 Brinton,Snow, and
Wesche进一步将理论系统化了,他们提出三种基于内容的教学模式:遮蔽模式,附加模式,和基于主题的模式。 provided an
oft-quoted rationale for CBI at postsecondary levels and show cased
models of sheltered, adjunct, and theme-based approaches to CBI.
Concurrent with these publications was the emergence of the
Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) (Chamot and
O’Malley, 1987), an alternative to sheltered instruction that is
noted for its three-way commitment toacademic content, academic
language skills, and strategy training. 1997 Stoller and Grabe,The
six T’s framework endorses the use of themes, topics, texts, tasks,
threads,and transitions as design criteria for more coherent
content-based curricula.
2002Short:Language-Content-Task (LCT) framework
内容型教学实践的运用模式(主要为90年代):
首先是针对美国基础教育的FLES
项目:将外语教学融入到其他数学,地理等授课中,此时外语成为一项学好相关科目的促进手段(reinforcement)<Foreign
Language in the Elementary School——in which content matter from
other classes (e.g.,math, science, geography) is integrated into
foreign language classes ;the foreign language serves as
reinforcement for subject matter classes and the content serves as
a stimulus for contextualized language learning.>
其次是针对高等教育的的FLAC项目(Foreign Language Across the Curriculum)和
Languages Across the Curriculum (LAC or
LxC)项目:旨在:提供学生用目的语进行学术研究的机会。providing students with opportunities
to use foreign languages in areas of academic interest(Krueger and
Ryan, 1993; Stryker and Leaver, 1997).
In FLAC programs,foreign languages are taught through the content
of academic disciplines (e.g., history, social sciences,
engineering) and the learning of various disciplines is augmented
with foreign language content resources.
其他类似的项目还有:Foreign Language Immersion Programs (FLIP) provide
university level foreign language and content-area majors the
opportunity to enroll in a full set of language and content courses
taught in the target language.以及The Monterey Model (Jourdenais and
Springer, 2005) integrates advanced foreign language study into
programs such as International Business and International Policy
Studies, thereby making a dual commitment to content and language
learning.
在欧洲内容型教学是对其多语教育政策的实践方法之一,达到WOLFF的所谓European competence
的目标。其提法是CLIL(content and language integration)
主要致力于五个方面的研究cultural, environmental (focused on
internationalization and European Union integration),language,
content, learning (focused on learning strategies and learner
motivation),同时欧洲开通了相关的网站:Europe an Network for Content and Language
Integrated Classrooms (EuroCLI C)
(
www.euroclic.net)
1989年Snow, Met, and Genesee (1989) introduced the important notions
of content-obligatory language and content-compatible language, the
former referring to the specific language required for student s to
master and communicate about a particular content area and the
latter referring to academic language that can be taught within the
context of a given content area but that is not required for
content mastery(关注内容学习中的语言本身)
进入90年代后,学者们不断发展内容型教学的深度与广度,具有一定的成效。1994年Short关注不同学科间相通的语言内化机制,教师间的合作,以及教学中的挑战等。(an
understanding of the intricacies of the language of different
disciplines, the tasks commonly associated with those disciplines,
and the challenges faced by teachers and students in content-based
classrooms)
1999年MET总结和提出了五种内容教学模式:
存在问题
l
对内容难易程度的艰难掌控:CBI teachers struggle with determining
levels of sufficient challenge to ensure student motivation and
engagement and finding a good match with studentages, cognitive
levels, and curricular expectations.
1.
the selection
and sequencing of language items dictated by content sources rather
than predetermined language syllabi
2.
the alignment of
content with language structures and functions that emerge from the
subject matter
l
语言教师与专业教师的矛盾:缺乏有专业学科知识深度同时又有语言知识的教师
有时CBI在教学实践中流于理念化和形式化。语言教师倾向于语言形式的优先教授而使内容成为点缀,从属与语法结构的教学等,此时意义成为相对不太真是的“意义”了。(但是在实践中我们需要清楚CBI为语言学习服务的终极目的,区分一般意义的语言学习和综合性的基础或高等教育的不同。)
未来方向
(a) 内容与语言的选择the selection ,sequencing, and weighting of content and
language in different CBI models;
(b) 输入,输出和反馈的关系the relationships among input, output, and feedback
to ensure improved student mastery of content
and
language;
(c) 学生参与其中各阶段的语言需求student engagement with information gathering,
compiling, and reporting and the language demands at each point of
the process;
(d) 学习策略对其的影响strategy training and its influence on student
learning;
(e) 习得语法的内容语境the contextualization of grammar instruction;
(f) 语言学习与某学科领域核心知识掌握之间的关系the relationship between tasks and texts.
Equally valuable would be research on factors critical for academic
success and specific career outcomes and on processes involved in,
and interactions among, acquiring literacy competence, subject
matter learning, and target language learning.
[1] Jean Brewster :content-based language teaching: a way to keep
students motivated and challenged? The IATEFL Young Learners SIG
Publication. Autumn 2004.
[2]杨璐嘉(四川外语学院,重庆)《内容新教学法及其应用初探》,《大众科技》,2008年第一期